Steel-vanadium alloy cladding for fuel element

ABSTRACT

This disclosure describes various configurations and components for bimetallic and trimetallic claddings for use as a wall element separating nuclear material from an external environment. The cladding materials are suitable for use as cladding for nuclear fuel elements, particularly for fuel elements that will be exposed to sodium or other coolants or environments with a propensity to react with the nuclear fuel.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S.Non-provisional patent application Ser. No. 15/623,119, filed Jun. 14,2017, which application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 62/458,377, titled “STEEL-VANADIUM ALLOY CLADDING FORFUEL ELEMENT”, filed Feb. 13, 2017.

INTRODUCTION

When used in nuclear reactors, nuclear fuel is typically provided withcladding. The cladding may be provided to contain the fuel and/or toprevent the fuel from interacting with an external environment. Forexample, some nuclear fuels are chemically reactive with coolants orother materials that may otherwise come in contact with the nuclear fuelabsent the cladding to act as a separator.

The cladding may or may not be a structural element. For example, insome cases the nuclear fuel is a solid structural element, e.g., a solidrod of uranium metal or uranium dioxide, and the cladding is essentiallya coating applied to the surface of the solid fuel. In other cases,nuclear fuel may be in a liquid form, powder form, or aggregate form,e.g., pellets or grains, that may require containment in a structuralcladding. In any case, the cladding may take the form of a tube, box, orvessel within which the fuel is placed. The fuel and claddingcombinations are often referred to as a “fuel element”, “fuel rod”, or a“fuel pin”.

Fuel clad chemical interaction (FCCI) in metallic fuel systems refers tothe degradation of fuel elements due to the chemical reaction betweenthe fuel and clad components. The chemical interaction is due, at leastin part, to multicomponent interdiffusion of species from the claddinginto the fuel and vice versa. Specifically, diffusion couple andirradiation experiments both demonstrate migration of clad components(iron and nickel) into the fuel, while fission products (primarily thelanthanides like cerium, neodymium, and praseodymium) diffuse outwardinto the clad.

FCCI leads to two primary concerns: reduction of clad mechanicalproperties from formation of brittle intermetallic compounds andwastage/thinning of the cladding, and formation of relatively lowmelting compositions within the fuel and clad interface. These concernsultimately affect performance limits for the fuel system, with the peakinner clad temperature (PICT) being influenced by the low melting point(725° C.) of the uranium-iron eutectic that forms at 33 at % Fe.Additionally, the few occurrences of cladding breaches in the fueledregion of rods irradiated in EBR-II exhibited extensive FCCI adjacent tothe breach locations (max penetrations up to 170 μm into the clad),implicating FCCI as a primary contributor to these breaches.

Although sodium-bonded metal fuel pins have been irradiated to peakburnups up to 20 at % with manageable amounts of FCCI, theseirradiations typically were performed over the course of two to fouryears. Beyond the higher peak burnups (30 at %) required for a travelingwave reactor (TWR) application, the extended service time at temperaturegreatly compounds the concerns of degradation due to FCCI.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following drawing figures, which form a part of this application,are illustrative of described technology and are not meant to limit thescope of the invention as claimed in any manner, which scope shall bebased on the claims appended hereto.

FIG. 1 illustrates a cut away view of a linear section of cladding, orwall element, showing the two-layer construction of a cladding having astructural outer layer.

FIG. 2 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 illustrates the wall element of FIG. 1 in contact with nuclearmaterial.

FIG. 4 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 2 withnuclear material contained within the tubular cladding.

FIG. 5 illustrates a cut away view of a linear section of cladding, orwall element, showing the two-layer construction of a cladding having astructural inner vanadium alloy layer.

FIG. 6 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 5.

FIG. 7 illustrates the wall element of FIG. 5 in contact with nuclearmaterial.

FIG. 8 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 6 withnuclear material contained within the tubular cladding.

FIG. 9 illustrates a cut away view of a linear section of anotherembodiment cladding, or wall element, having a three-layer construction.

FIG. 10 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 9.

FIG. 11 illustrates the wall element of FIG. 9 in contact with nuclearmaterial.

FIG. 12 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 10containing nuclear material in the hollow center of the tube.

FIG. 13 illustrates a method of manufacturing a two or three layer wallelement for separating a nuclear material from an external environment,such as those described above.

FIGS. 14a and 14b illustrate a nuclear fuel assembly and details of afuel element.

FIGS. 15A and 15B are micrographs of a trimetallic cladding having anintermediate layer of Ni electroplated to a first layer of vanadiumdoped with carbon on one side and a second layer of HT9 steel on theother.

FIGS. 15C and 15D show the chemical composition mapping for thetrimetallic claddings of FIGS. 15A and 15B.

FIG. 16 illustrates at a high-level an embodiment of a method formanufacturing the claddings described above.

FIG. 17 illustrates an embodiment of the working operation 1608 of FIG.16.

FIG. 18 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the working operation1608 of FIG. 16.

FIG. 19 illustrates yet another alternative embodiment of the workingoperation 1608 of FIG. 16.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This disclosure describes various configurations and components forbimetallic and trimetallic claddings for use as a wall elementseparating nuclear material from an external environment. The claddingmaterials are suitable for use as cladding for nuclear fuel elements,particularly for fuel elements that will be exposed to sodium or othercoolants or environments with a propensity to react with the nuclearfuel.

Two Layer Steel-Vanadium Alloy Claddings

Structural Steel Layer with Carbon-Doped Vanadium Liner

FIG. 1 illustrates a cut away view of a linear section of cladding, orwall element, showing the two-layer construction of the cladding. Thecladding 100 may be part of any structural component that separatesnuclear fuel from a reactive, external environment. For example, thecladding 100 may be part of a wall of a tube containing nuclear fuel, avessel or any other shape of storage container. In an alternativeembodiment, rather than being a section of wall of a container, thecladding may be the resulting layers on the surface of a solid nuclearfuel created by some deposition or cladding technique. These techniques,such as electroplating, thermal spray coating, chemical vapordeposition, sputtering, ion implantation, ion plating, sputterdeposition, laser surface alloying, hot dipping, and annealing to namebut a few, are well known in the art and, depending on the desired endcladding properties, any suitable technique may be used.

Regardless of the manufacturing technology used, the cladding 100 shownin FIG. 1 consists of two layers 102, 104 of material: a first layer 102and a second, structural, layer 104 that is the structural element ofthe cladding. The first layer 102 separates the fuel, or the storagearea where the fuel will be placed if the fuel has not been providedyet, from the structural layer 104. The first layer 102 acts as a linerthat protects the structural layer 104 from contact with the fuel. Thesecond layer 104 is between the first layer 102 and the externalenvironment. Thus, the first layer 102 is a layer of material with onesurface exposed to the fuel and the other surface exposed to the secondlayer 104 while the second layer 104 has a first-layer-facing surfaceand a surface exposed to the external environment.

The cladding 100 illustrated in FIG. 1 has a first layer 102 of amaterial selected to reduce the effects of FCCI on both the propertiesof the first layer 102 and the stored fuel and also selected to reducethe effects of detrimental chemical interactions between the secondlayer 104 and first layer 102. In an embodiment, the first layer 102 iscarbon-doped vanadium and the second layer is a steel. To reduce theinteraction between the steel and the carbon-doped vanadium layers, inan embodiment the carbon-doped vanadium is doped with at least 0.001 wt.% (10 ppm) carbon. This will reduce the amount of decarburizationobserved in the steel and reduce the degradation of the steel while inuse as a fuel element.

In an embodiment the carbon-doped vanadium is a vanadium carbon alloyconsisting of at least 99.0 wt. % V; 0.001-0.5 wt. % C; with the balanceother elements, wherein the carbon-doped vanadium includes not greaterthan 0.1 wt. % of any one of the other elements, and wherein the totalof the other elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %. In more pureembodiments, the total of the other elements (i.e., the total of thecomposition that is not V or C) does not exceed 0.05, 0.025, or 0.01 wt.% of the alloy. In one specific embodiment, for example, the carbonrange is from 0.1 to 0.3 wt. % C, the total of the other elements(everything that is not V or C) combined is less than 0.5 wt. %, and thebalance is V. In another specific embodiment, for example, the carbonrange is from 0.1 to 0.3 wt. % C, the total of the other elements(everything that is not V or C) combined is less than 0.1 wt. %, and thebalance is V.

The steel layer 104 may be any suitable steel. Examples of suitablesteels include a martensitic steel, a ferritic steel, an austeniticsteel, a FeCrAl alloy, an oxide-dispersion strengthened steel, T91steel, T92 steel, HT9 steel, 316 steel, and 304 steel. The steel mayhave any type of microstructure. For example, in an embodimentsubstantially all the steel in the layer 104 has at least one phasechosen from a tempered martensite phase, a ferrite phase, and anaustenitic phase. In an embodiment, the steel is an HT9 steel or amodified version of HT9 steel.

In one embodiment, the modified HT9 steel is 9.0-12.0 wt. % Cr;0.001-2.5 wt. % W; 0.001-2.0 wt. % Mo; 0.001-0.5 wt. % Si; up to 0.5 wt.% Ti; up to 0.5 wt. % Zr; up to 0.5 wt. % V; up to 0.5 wt. % Nb; up to0.3 wt. % Ta; up to 0.1 wt. % N; up to 0.3 wt. % C; and up to 0.01 wt. %B; with the balance being Fe and other elements, wherein the steelincludes not greater than 0.15 wt. % of each of these other elements,and wherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.35 wt.%. In other embodiments, the steel may have a narrower range of Si from0.1 to 0.3 wt. %. The steel of the steel layer 104 may include one ormore of carbide precipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Ta or B, nitrideprecipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta, and/or carbo-nitride precipitatesof Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta.

FIG. 2 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 1. Inthe embodiment shown, the wall element 200 is in the form of a tube withan interior surface and an exterior surface, the first layer 202 ofcarbon-doped vanadium forming the interior surface of the tube and thesecond layer 204 of steel forming the exterior surface of the tube. Thefuel storage region is in the center of the tube. Fuel within the tubeis thus protected from the reactive external environment at the sametime the steel layer 104 is separated from the fuel.

The general term wall element is used herein to acknowledge that a tube,vessel or other shape of container may have multiple different walls orsections of a wall of the cladding 100 as illustrated in FIG. 1. Thatis, the container has a shape that is defined by one or morecontinuously connected wall elements to form a vessel. However,embodiments of claddings include those that have one or more wallelements that are constructed of materials that are not the cladding 100as illustrated in FIG. 1 as well as wall elements of the cladding 100.For example, a tube may have a cylindrical wall element of the cladding100 described in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 but have end walls of a differentconstruction. Likewise, a cube-shaped fuel container may have sidewallsand a bottom wall constructed as shown in FIG. 1, but a top of differentconstruction.

FIG. 3 illustrates the wall element of FIG. 1, but this time withnuclear material 310, including but not limited to nuclear fuel, incontact with the carbon-doped vanadium layer 302. The steel layer 304may be any thickness (i.e., the shortest distance between the exteriorsurface of the steel layer 304 that is exposed to the reactiveenvironment and the vanadium layer 302) as necessary to provide thestrength properties desired for the cladding. The carbon-doped vanadiumlayer 302 may have a thickness from that of a thin coating (0.1% of thethickness of the structural layer 304) up to 50% of the thickness of thestructural layer 304. For example, embodiments of the carbon-dopedvanadium layer have a thickness, as a percentage of the steel layer'sthickness, of between any of 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.5%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%and 25% on the low end up to 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%and 50% on the high end. Embodiments of the wall elements include theranges that are any combination of the upper and lower limits providedabove. For example, the above specifically includes embodiments ofcarbon-doped vanadium layers having ranges from 1-5%, from 0.1-10%, from20-45%, and from 0.1-50% of the thickness of the steel layer. However,regardless of the thickness of the carbon-doped vanadium layer theprimary structural element of the wall element 300 is the steel layer304.

FIG. 4, likewise, illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding ofFIG. 2, but this time with nuclear material 410, including but notlimited to nuclear fuel, in the hollow center of the tube 400. The steellayer 404, again, may be any thickness as necessary to provide thestrength properties desired for the cladding. The carbon-doped vanadiumlayer 402 may have a thickness from that of a thin coating (0.1% of thethickness of the structural layer 404) up to 50% of the thickness of thestructural layer 404. However, regardless of the thickness of thecarbon-doped vanadium layer the primary structural element of the wallelement 400 is the steel layer 404.

In an alternative embodiment, the claddings shown in FIGS. 1-4 may beprovided with a third, intermediate layer between the steel structurallayer and the carbon-doped vanadium layer to further reduce interactionbetween the steel and the carbon-doped vanadium. Embodiments of suitableintermediate layers are described below with reference to FIGS. 9-12.

For the purposes of this application, nuclear material includes anymaterial containing an actinide, regardless of whether it can be used asa nuclear fuel. Thus, any nuclear fuel is a nuclear material but, morebroadly, any materials containing a trace amount or more of U, Th, Am,Np, and/or Pu are nuclear materials. Other examples of nuclear materialsinclude spent fuel, depleted uranium, yellowcake, uranium dioxide,metallic uranium with zirconium and/or plutonium, thorium dioxide,thorianite, uranium chloride salts such as salts containing uraniumtetrachloride and/or uranium trichloride.

Nuclear fuel, on the other hand, includes any fissionable material.Fissionable material includes any nuclide capable of undergoing fissionwhen exposed to low-energy thermal neutrons or high-energy neutrons.Furthermore, fissionable material includes any fissile material, anyfertile material or combination of fissile and fertile materials. Afissionable material may contain a metal and/or metal alloy. In oneembodiment, the fuel may be a metal fuel. It can be appreciated thatmetal fuel may offer relatively high heavy metal loadings and excellentneutron economy, which is desirable for breed-and-burn process of anuclear fission reactor. Depending on the application, fuel may includeat least one element chosen from U, Th, Am, Np, and Pu. In oneembodiment, the fuel may include at least about 90 wt. % U—e.g., atleast 95 wt. %, 98 wt. %, 99 wt. %, 99.5 wt. %, 99.9 wt. %, 99.99 wt. %,or higher of U. The fuel may further include a refractory material,which may include at least one element chosen from Nb, Mo, Ta, W, Re,Zr, V, Ti, Cr, Ru, Rh, Os, Ir, and Hf. In one embodiment, the fuel mayinclude additional burnable poisons, such as boron, gadolinium, orindium. In addition, a metal fuel may be alloyed with about 3 wt. % toabout 10 wt. % zirconium to dimensionally stabilize the fuel duringirradiation and to inhibit low-temperature eutectic and corrosion damageof the cladding.

Examples of reactive environments or materials from which the nuclearmaterial is separated from include reactor coolants such as NaCl—MgCl₂,Na, NaK, supercritical CO2, lead, and lead bismuth eutectic.

Structural Vanadium Alloy Layer with Steel Liner

FIG. 5 illustrates a cut away view of a linear section of cladding, orwall element, showing the two-layer construction of a cladding having astructural vanadium alloy inner layer. Again, the cladding 500 may bepart of any structural component that separates nuclear fuel from areactive, external environment. For example, the cladding 500 may bepart of a wall of a tube containing nuclear fuel, a vessel or any othershape of storage container. In an alternative embodiment, rather thanbeing a section of wall of a container, the cladding may be theresulting layers on the surface of a solid nuclear fuel created by somedeposition or cladding technique. These techniques, such aselectroplating, thermal spray coating, chemical vapor deposition,sputtering, ion implantation, ion plating, sputter deposition, lasersurface alloying, hot dipping, and annealing to name but a few, are wellknown in the art and depending on the desired end cladding propertiesany suitable technique may be used.

Regardless of the manufacturing technology used, the cladding 500 shownin FIG. 5 consists of two layers 502, 504 of material. The first layer502 is the primary structural element of the cladding and separates thefuel, or the storage area where the fuel will be placed if the fuel hasnot been provided yet, from the second layer 504. The second layer 504is between the first layer 502 and the external environment. Thus, thefirst layer 502 is a layer of material with one surface exposed to thefuel and the other surface exposed to the second layer 504 while thesecond layer 504 has a first-layer-facing surface and a surface exposedto the external environment.

Similar to the cladding described above with reference to FIGS. 1-4, thecladding 500 illustrated in FIG. 5 has a first layer 502 of a materialselected to reduce the effects of FCCI on both the structural propertiesof the first layer 502 and the stored fuel and also selected to reducethe effects of detrimental chemical interactions between the secondlayer 504 and first layer 502.

In an embodiment, the first layer 502 is a vanadium alloy containing atleast 90% V and the second layer 504 is a steel. Vanadium alloys thatmay be used in the first layer 502 include without limitation vanadiumcarbon alloys, V-20Ti, V-10Cr-STi, V-15Cr-5Ti, V-4Cr-4Ti, V-4Cr-4Ti NIFSHeats 1 & 2, V-4Cr-4Ti US Heats 832665 & 8923864, and V-4Cr-4Ti HeatCEA-J57. In an embodiment, the vanadium alloy consists of 3.0-5.0 wt. %Cr; 3.0-5.0 wt. % Ti; and no more than 0.02 wt. % C; with the balancebeing V and other elements, wherein the vanadium alloy includes notgreater than 0.1 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %. This purityrequirement may require special refining of the V and Ti, such asdouble- or triple-melting of the Ti or electro-refining of the V. Inmore pure embodiments, the total of these other elements does not exceed0.4, 0.25, or even 0.1 wt. % of the alloy. The carbon range, dependingon the embodiment, may be from 0.0001 to 0.02 wt. % C. The vanadiumalloy may include one or more carbide precipitates of Cr, Ti and/orother elements.

One particular V-4Cr-4Ti embodiment is provided in TABLE 1, below.

TABLE 1 Element Wt. Fraction V Bal. Cr 3.5-4.5 Ti 3.5-4.5 Si 400-1000ppm O <200 ppm N <200 ppm C <200 ppm Al <200 ppm Fe <200 ppm Cu <10 ppmMo <10 ppm Nb <10 ppm P <10 ppm S <10 ppm Cl <2 ppm Total of all <100ppm and not greater than other elements 0.001 wt. % of any one of theother elements.

For the embodiment shown in TABLE 1, one suitable manufacturing processis as follows. The source of raw materials may be iodide orelectro-refined vanadium with low impurity content and, in anembodiment, the calcium-reduction process is not used to obtain thevanadium. In an embodiment, the titanium source does not include spongetitanium in order to reduce Cl, K, and Na impurities and double- ortriple-melting of the titanium feedstock is to be performed to achievethe necessary purity level. The V-4Cr-4Ti may be melted using anappropriate method such as laser beam melting, vacuum arc melting, orcold cathode induction melting, in order to prevent contamination. Theingot is then homogenized to reduce local inhomogeneity of Cr and Ti to<+/−0.3 wt. %. The subsequent ingot is then encapsulated in stainlesssteel and extruded or hot worked at a temperature from 1100-1300° C. andsubsequently warm-rolled at a temperature from 300-900° C. to the finalbillet size required for bimetallic cladding tube fabrication. One ormore intermediate anneals during hot work may be performed at 800-1200°C. for up to three hours in a vacuum furnace. One or more similaranneals may be performed as part of any cold work processing. Theanneals during cold work may involve a sequence of anneals from900-1000° C. (e.g., at 950±10° C.) to soften the vanadium followed byone or more anneals from 700-780° C. to transform the HT9 frommartensite to ferrite. Final heat treatment of the bimetallic claddingtube product is performed at 1075±10° C. for 20 minutes with an air coolto room temperature followed by 650-700° C. for 1-3 hours and a rapidcooling rate.

The steel layer 504 may be any suitable steel as described above withreference to FIGS. 1-4. For example, in one embodiment the steel is themodified HT9 steel having 9.0-12.0 wt. % Cr; 0.001-2.5 wt. % W;0.001-2.0 wt. % Mo; 0.001-0.5 wt. % Si; up to 0.5 wt. % Ti; up to 0.5wt. % Zr; up to 0.5 wt. % V; up to 0.5 wt. % Nb; up to 0.3 wt. % Ta; upto 0.1 wt. % N; up to 0.3 wt. % C; and up to 0.01 wt. % B; with thebalance being Fe and other elements, wherein the steel includes notgreater than 0.15 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.35 wt. %. In otherembodiments, the steel may have a narrower range of Si from 0.1 to 0.3wt. %. The steel of the steel layer 104 may include one or more ofcarbide precipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Ta or B, nitride precipitates ofTi, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta, and/or carbo-nitride precipitates of Ti, Zr, V,Nb, or Ta.

As mentioned above, the vanadium alloy layer 502 is the primarystructural element of the cladding. That is, the vanadium alloy layer502 is the layer that provides most of the solid structure maintainingthe shape of the fuel element and preventing failure of the cladding andrelease of nuclear material. The steel layer 504 may be nothing morethan a coating of steel on the external surface of the vanadium alloylayer 502. In these embodiments, the vanadium alloy layer is at leasttwice as thick as the steel layer 504. That is, the steel layer 504 maybe as little as 0.001% the thickness of the vanadium alloy layer 502 andup to 50% the thickness of the vanadium alloy layer 502. In variousembodiments, the steel layer thickness may be from 0.01%, 0.1% or 1% ofthe thickness of the vanadium alloy layer 502 and up to 5%, 10%, 15%,20% or 25% of the thickness of the vanadium alloy layer 502.

FIG. 6 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 5. Inthe embodiment shown, the wall element 600 is in the form of a tube withan interior surface and an exterior surface, the first layer 602 ofvanadium alloy forming the interior surface of the tube and the secondlayer 604 of steel forming the exterior surface of the tube. The fuelstorage region is in the center region of the tube. Fuel within the tubeis thus protected from the reactive external environment at the sametime the steel layer 604 is separated from the fuel. Again, the generalterm wall element is used herein to acknowledge that a tube, vessel orother shape of container may have multiple different walls or sectionsof a wall of the cladding 500 as illustrated in FIG. 5.

FIG. 7 illustrates the wall element of FIG. 5, but this time withnuclear material 710, including but not limited to nuclear fuel, incontact with the vanadium layer 702. The steel layer 704, again, may beany thickness from a thin coating up to 50% of the thickness of thevanadium alloy structural layer 702.

FIG. 8, likewise, illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding ofFIG. 6, but this time with nuclear material 810, including but notlimited to nuclear fuel, in the hollow center of the tube 800. The steellayer 804, again, may be any thickness from a thin coating up to 50% ofthe thickness of the vanadium layer 802; however, the primary structuralelement is the vanadium alloy layer 802.

In an alternative embodiment, the claddings shown in FIGS. 5-8 may beprovided with a third, intermediate layer between the vanadium alloystructural layer and the steel layer to further reduce interactionbetween the steel and the vanadium alloys. Embodiments of suitableintermediate layers are described below with reference to FIGS. 9-12.

Three Layer Steel-Vanadium Claddings

In addition to the bi-metallic cladding embodiments, tri-metallicversions of the above claddings may also be useful. Tri-metalliccladding embodiments involve providing an intermediate layer between thesteel and vanadium layers described above to reduce interaction betweenthe steel and the vanadium layers. These embodiments include claddingsin which the steel layer is the structural layer and claddings in whichthe vanadium layer is vanadium alloy and acts as the structural layer.In either embodiment, the intermediate layer acts as a barrier toprevent interaction between the steel and the vanadium. In theembodiments in which the steel layer the structural element of thecladding, any of the vanadium materials described herein are suitablefor the vanadium layer. In FIGS. 9-12, the tri-metallic claddingembodiment having an intermediate layer with a structural steel layer isspecifically illustrated; however, the description discusses multipletri-metallic cladding embodiments.

FIG. 9 illustrates a cut away view of a linear section of anotherembodiment cladding, or wall element, having a three-layer construction.As with the cladding embodiments discussed above, the vanadium materialused in the first layer 902 is again selected to reduce the effects ofFCCI on both the properties of the first layer 902 and the fuel to beused in the fuel element. The outer layer 904 is steel, also asdescribed above.

In the cladding 900 illustrated, the middle, or intermediate, layer 906acts as a liner between the steel layer 904 and the vanadium layer 902.In the embodiment shown, the steel layer 904 is the primary structuralcomponent of the fuel cladding 900. In this embodiment the steel layer904 is the thickest layer in order to provide the structural support forthe cladding 900. The steel layer 904 may be 50% or more of the totalthickness of the cladding 900. For example, embodiments of the steellayer 904 range from lower bounds of 50, 60, 70, 75, 80, 90, 95, 99 oreven 99.9% of the total thickness of the cladding 900. The upper boundis limited to some amount less than 100% in which the middle andvanadium layers are sufficient to provide some protection from FCCI. Forexample, upper bounds of from 75, 80, 90, 95, 99, 99.9 or even 99.999%of the total thickness of the cladding 900 are contemplated. The balanceof the thickness is made up by the other two layers. Thus, in a broadembodiment, the cladding may be considered a thick, steel layer facingthe coolant, a thin, fuel-side vanadium alloy or carbon-doped vanadiumlayer, and a thin, protective layer between the two wherein by ‘thin’ itis meant no more than 10% of the total thickness of the cladding. Forexample, specifically in one embodiment the steel layer 904 of thecladding 900 is at least 99% of the total cladding thickness with eachof the middle layer 906 and vanadium alloy layer 902 being from 0.0001%to 0.9% of the total cladding thickness.

The materials used in the first layer 902 may be any of those vanadiummaterials described with reference to FIGS. 1-4 or vanadium alloysdescribed with reference to FIGS. 5-8, above.

Likewise, the materials used in the outer steel layer 904 may be any ofthose steels described with reference to FIGS. 1-8, above. In oneembodiment, for example, the steel is the modified HT9 steel definedabove.

The middle layer 906 is made of a material that has less chemicalinteraction with the vanadium layer 902 than the steel in the steellayer 904 has with the vanadium alloy layer 902. In this way, the middlelayer 906 acts as a protective barrier between the fuel-side vanadiumlayer 902 and the outside steel layer 904.

In an embodiment, the material of the middle layer 906 is selected fromnickel, nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconiumalloy. In nickel embodiments, the material is substantially pure, thatis, at least 99.9 wt. % Ni; with the balance other elements, wherein thematerial includes not greater than 0.05 wt. % of each of these otherelements, and wherein the total of these other elements does not exceed0.1 wt. %. In more pure embodiments, the total of these other elementsdoes not exceed 0.025; 0.01, or 0.005 wt. % of the material. In nickelalloy embodiments, the material is at least 90.0 wt. % Ni; with thebalance other elements, wherein the material includes not greater than5.0 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein the total ofthese other elements does not exceed 10.0 wt. %. In more pureembodiments, the total of these other elements does not exceed 2.5; 1,or 0.5 wt. % of the nickel alloy.

In chromium embodiments, the material is substantially pure, that is, atleast 99.9 wt. % Cr; with the balance other elements, wherein thematerial includes not greater than 0.05 wt. % of each of these otherelements, and wherein the total of these other elements does not exceed0.1 wt. %. In more pure embodiments, the total of these other elementsdoes not exceed 0.025; 0.01, or 0.005 wt. % of the material. In chromiumalloy embodiments, the material is at least 90.0 wt. % Cr; with thebalance other elements, wherein the material includes not greater than5.0 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein the total ofthese other elements does not exceed 10.0 wt. %. In more pureembodiments, the total of these other elements does not exceed 5, 2.5;1, or 0.5 wt. % of the chromium alloy.

In zirconium embodiments, the material is substantially pure, that is,at least 99.9 wt. % Zr; with the balance other elements, wherein thematerial includes not greater than 0.05 wt. % of each of these otherelements, and wherein the total of these other elements does not exceed0.1 wt. %. In more pure embodiments, the total of these other elementsdoes not exceed 0.025; 0.01, or 0.005 wt. % of the material. Inzirconium alloy embodiments, the material is at least 90.0 wt. % Zr;with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 5.0 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 10.0 wt. %. In more pureembodiments, the total of these other elements does not exceed 5, 2.5;1, or 0.5 wt. % of the zirconium alloy.

In the embodiment shown, the steel layer is structural support for thecladding, having thicknesses as described above with reference to FIGS.1-4, and the middle layer 906 and vanadium layer 902 are the thinnerlayers of the cladding. In an embodiment not shown, the vanadium layer902 is the thicker, structural layer, having thicknesses as describedwith reference FIGS. 5-8, and the middle layer 906 and steel layer 904are the thinner layers of the cladding. As with FIGS. 1-8, however, thesteel layer 904 is the outer layer and the vanadium layer 902 is theinner layer.

FIG. 10 illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding of FIG. 9. Inthe embodiment shown, the wall element 1000 is in the form of a tubewith an interior surface and an exterior surface, the first layer 1002of vanadium alloy forming the interior surface of the tube and thesecond layer 1004 of steel forming the exterior surface of the tube, thefirst and second layers being separated by the middle layer 1006. Thefuel storage region is in the center region of the tube. Fuel within thetube is thus protected from the reactive external environment at thesame time the steel layer 1004 is separated from the fuel. Again, thegeneral term wall element is used herein to acknowledge that a tube,vessel or other shape of container may have multiple different walls orsections of a wall of the cladding 900 as illustrated in FIG. 9.

FIG. 11 illustrates the wall element of FIG. 9, but this time withnuclear material 1110, including but not limited to nuclear fuel, incontact with the vanadium layer 1102 of the wall element 1100. Thevanadium layer 1102 is separated from the steel layer 1104 by the middlelayer 1106.

FIG. 12, likewise, illustrates a tubular embodiment of the cladding ofFIG. 9, but this time with nuclear material 1210, including but notlimited to nuclear fuel, in the hollow center of the tube 1200. Again,the vanadium layer 1202 is separated from the steel layer 1204 by themiddle layer 1206.

The three layer steel-vanadium claddings have the benefits of (a) havinga steel outer layer to protect the fuel element from exposure to thereactive coolant environment; and (b) the reduced FCCI due to the fuelside vanadium alloy layer. The main structural element may be either ofthe steel or vanadium layers.

FIG. 13 illustrates a method of manufacturing a two or three layer wallelement for separating a nuclear material from an external environment,such as those described above. The method 1300 includes manufacturing afirst layer, the first layer including at least a steel layer in a firstlayer manufacturing operation 1302. The first layer is then connected tothe second layer that includes at least a layer of vanadium alloy, in alayer connection operation 1304.

In an embodiment of the layer connection operation 1304, the vanadiumlayer is manufactured prior to connecting the second layer to the firstlayer. In an alternative embodiment of the layer connection operation1304, the second layer is created by depositing it onto the first layer.

In an embodiment of the layer connection operation 1304, the secondlayer consists only of the vanadium alloy layer and includes connectingthe steel layer directly to the vanadium alloy layer.

In an embodiment of the first layer construction operation 1302,manufacturing the first layer includes manufacturing a first layerconsisting of the steel layer connected to a third layer made of nickel,nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconium alloy andthe layer connection operation 1304 includes connecting the first layerto the second layer so that the third layer is between the steel layerand the vanadium alloy layer.

In an alternative embodiment, in which the second layer consists of thevanadium alloy layer connected to the third layer of nickel, nickelalloy, chromium, chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconium alloy, the layerconnection operation 1304 includes connecting the first layer to thesecond layer so that the third layer is between the steel layer and thevanadium alloy layer.

Fuel Elements and Fuel Assemblies

FIG. 14a provides a partial illustration of a nuclear fuel assembly 10utilizing one or more of the claddings described above. The fuelassembly 10, as shown, includes a number of individual fuel elements (or“fuel rods” or “fuel pins”) 11 held within a containment structure 16.FIG. 14b provides a partial illustration of a fuel element 11 inaccordance with one embodiment. As shown in this embodiment, the fuelelement includes a cladding 13, a fuel 14, and, in some instances, atleast one gap 15. Although illustrated as a single element, the cladding13 is composed of, entirely or at least in part, of the two layer orthree layer claddings described above.

A fuel is sealed within a cavity created by the exterior cladding 13. Insome instances, the multiple fuel materials may be stacked axially asshown in FIG. 14b , but this need not be the case. For example, a fuelelement may contain only one fuel material. In one embodiment, gap(s) 15may be present between the fuel material and the cladding, though gap(s)need not be present. In one embodiment, the gap is filled with apressurized atmosphere, such as a pressured helium atmosphere.

In one embodiment, individual fuel elements 11 may have a thin wire 12from about 0.8 mm diameter to about 1.6 mm diameter helically wrappedaround the circumference of the clad tubing to provide coolant space andmechanical separation of individual fuel elements 11 within the housingof the fuel assemblies 10 (that also serve as the coolant duct). In oneembodiment, the cladding 13, and/or wire wrap 12 may be fabricated fromferritic-martensitic steel because of its irradiation performance asindicated by a body of empirical data.

The fuel element may have any geometry, both externally and for theinternal fuel storage region. For example, in some embodiments shownabove, the fuel element is cylindrical and may take the form of acylindrical rod. In addition, some prismatoid geometries for fuelelements may be particularly efficient. For example, the fuel elementsmay be right, oblique, or truncated prisms having three or more sidesand any polygonal shape for the base. Hexagonal prisms, rectangularprisms, square prisms and triangular prisms are all potentiallyefficient shapes for packing a fuel assembly.

The fuel elements and fuel assembly may be a part of a power generatingreactor, which is a part of a nuclear power plant. Heat generated by thenuclear reaction is used to heat a coolant in contact with the exteriorof the fuel elements. This heat is then removed and used to driveturbines or other equipment for the beneficial harvesting of power fromthe removed heat.

Example

FIGS. 15A and 15B are micrographs of a trimetallic cladding having anintermediate layer of Ni electroplated to a first layer of vanadiumdoped with carbon on one side and a second layer of HT9 steel on theother. FIG. 15B is an enlargement of the area of the trimetalliccladding shown within the dashed box in FIG. 15A. In the cladding, thevanadium is doped with 0.2 wt. % C.

FIGS. 15C and 15D show the chemical composition mapping for thetrimetallic claddings of FIGS. 15A and 15B. In FIGS. 15C and 15D theamount and distribution of Cr, Fe, V, Ni, C and Mo through the regionaround the middle layer are shown. This analysis shows that at leastsome vanadium diffused into the middle layer, but little or no vanadiummade it into the HT9 layer.

Cladding and Fuel Element Manufacturing Methods

Mechanically bonding the cladding-barriers-fuel system reduces thethermal resistance between the fuel and the cladding. This allows fortraditional bonding materials to be omitted, such as liquid sodium. Inan alternative embodiment, a metallurgical bond between layers of theBEC or fuel element may be formed, such as by pressing (e.g., hot,isostatic pressing), in order to eliminate the gaps between the fuel,barriers, and cladding that cause thermal resistance.

The following discussion recognizes that adjacent layers of a claddingmay be connected by a mechanical bond, a metallurgical bond, or adiffusion bond. Mechanically bonded layers refer to layers in which theopposing surfaces are in physical contact. Parts connected by aninterference fit are an example of mechanical bonded layers. Whilemechanically bonded layers may have some gaps and may not be perfectcontact along the entire interface, the close proximity and physicalcontact allows for good thermal energy transfer between the layers. Thiscan be used to remove the need for some sort of thermal transfermaterial between the layers. Metallurgically bonded layers have beenfurther treated or otherwise processed to create a physical interfacebetween the atoms on the surface of the two layers that is completely orsubstantially free of gaps, resulting in a discrete interface betweenthe layers. Metallurgical bonds have better thermal energy transfer thanmechanical bonds due to the better contact, but still maintain adiscrete interface in that there is substantially no interdiffusion ofmaterial between the layers. Interfaces created by hot isostaticpressing or vapor deposition are examples of layers connected by ametallurgical bond. Finally, layers may be diffusion bonded in whichmaterials of the two layers are deliberately intermixed to create a zoneof diffusion at the interface. In diffusion bonding, there is no clearinterface between the two layers, but rather a zone in which thematerial gradually transitions from that of one layer into that of theother layer. Diffusion bonding changes the material properties withinthe zone of diffusion while mechanical and metallurgical bonds, on theother hand, do not substantially affect the properties of either layerand maintain a discrete interface between the two layers.

FIG. 16 illustrates at a high-level an embodiment of a method formanufacturing the claddings described above. Given a selected set ofmaterials and thicknesses for each of the particular cladding layers,the method 1600 manufactures a final lined cladding and, as a finalstep, creates a fuel element by putting nuclear material in the linedcladding.

In the embodiment shown, the method 1600 starts with the fabrication ofthe initial component layer of the cladding in a manufacturing operation1602. This may be any of the layers previously discussed, i.e., thesteel layer, the carbon-doped vanadium layer, structural vanadium alloylayer, or the middle layer if a three-layer cladding is beingconstructed. This initial component is fabricated in the manufacturingoperation 1602 as a stand-alone component of a desired shape to whichthe other layers may be later attached.

For example, in an embodiment in which the outer cladding layer is anHT9 steel, the manufacturing operation 1602 may include conventionalforging of the HT9 steel and drawing it into a tube or sheet. Likewise,in an embodiment in which the structural vanadium alloy is the initialcomponent, manufacturing operation 1602 may include conventionalfabrication of vanadium alloy and drawing it into a tube or sheet tocreate the stand-alone component. Three-dimensional printing may also beused to fabricate the initial component.

After the initial component is manufactured, a second layer attachmentoperation 1604 is performing in which the second layer is attached tothe initial component. In the attachment operation 1604, the first andsecond layers are mechanically or metallurgically bonded at theinterface of the layers. For example, in a tubular embodiment the firstand second layers are mechanically or metallurgically bonded togetheralong the perimeter interface of the two layers.

The attachment technique used will be informed by the types of materialsbeing attached. Examples of attachment techniques are discussed ingreater detail below. The result is a two-layer intermediate component.For a two layer cladding embodiment, the two-layer intermediatecomponent is either the finished cladding or a billet or otherintermediate form that can be worked in the desired final form by theworking operation 1608.

For a three layer cladding embodiment, the intermediate component may beone of a) a steel layer and middle layer intermediate, or b) a middlelayer and fuel-side liner intermediate. For example, given a desired endcladding of a vanadium fuel-side liner, middle layer, and steel outerlayer, the intermediate component may be a vanadium layer/middle layerintermediate or a middle layer/outer steel layer intermediate.

For manufacturing three layer embodiments of the cladding, a third layerattachment operation 1606 is then performed to attach the third layer tothe two layer intermediate component. In the third layer attachmentoperation 1606, the third layer is mechanically or metallurgicallybonded to one of the two layers of the two-layer intermediate component.For example, in a tubular embodiment the second and third layers aremechanically or metallurgically bonded together along the perimeterinterface of the two layers. This creates the three layer intermediatecomponent which is either the finished three layer cladding or a billetor other intermediate form that can be worked in the desired final formby the working operation 1608.

As mentioned above, the working operation 1608 works the cladding intothe final form of the cladding (shape, size, layer thicknesses, etc.).This may include any known or later developed working techniques. Forexample, FIGS. 17-19 illustrate different specific embodiments of theworking operation 1608.

The fuel element is then completed in final assembly operation 1610. Inthis operation the fuel is inserted and, if necessary, the assembledfuel element is worked in the final form. In an embodiment, this mayinclude some final processing or bonding operations to complete thebonding of the fuel to the cladding. For example, in an embodiment thefinal assembly operation 1610 includes a process that provides a finalmetallurgical bond between one or more layers that were previouslymechanically bonded in an earlier operation.

The final assembly operation 1610 may also include the attachment of anyexternal fittings needed for use. For example, the final assemblyoperation 1610 may include applying one or more end caps onto the fuelelement. Any additional hardware or components may also be provided aspart of this operation 1610.

Intermediate anneals may be performed under vacuum or reducingconditions as desired as part of the any of the operations of the method1600. Final heat treatment including normalization and tempering mayalso be performed as desired.

As mentioned above, the initial component may be fabricated in themanufacturing operation 1602 in any convention fashion. The laterattachment operations 1604, 1606, 1610 include any suitable techniquefor creating the respective layer of the selected material and attachingit to the initial or intermediate component. In an embodiment, thecladding and barriers are each hermetic to prevent easy migration ofgaseous fission products, with no wall-through defects or cracks createdduring manufacture. Furthermore, the use of mechanical or metallurgicalbonds between the layers of the BEC results in good thermal conductivitywithout the use of thermal bonding materials such as liquid sodium.Examples of suitable techniques, depending on the materials in question,include separate, conventional fabrication, for example, cold drawing orthree-dimensional printing, of the layer to be attached and simplemechanical bonding such as by insertion, rolling, press fitting,swaging, co-extrusion, or pilgering (cold or hot). Mechanical attachmenttechniques may include elevated temperatures (e.g., hot pilgering or hotisostatic press) to assist in the creation of a good attachment betweenthe layers and layers without any cracks or other deformities.

In some cases, using differences in thermal expansion duringconstruction of the fuel element may be possible as part of the finalattachment operation 1608. In this way, inner layer(s) and or fuel maybe ‘slid’ into the cladding and reach a desired state once predeterminedthermal conditions are met, such as steady state reactor operatingtemperature, refueling temperature, or the temperature at which the fuelis shipped after manufacturing. Thus, although the embodiments shown inFIGS. 1-4 and 9-12 illustrate the various layers as entirely bondedtogether along their surfaces of contact, at different points during themanufacturing process this may not be the case, especially when thelayers are mechanically bonded together. In addition, although ideal,such a perfect bonding at all points along interfacing surfaces may notbe achievable in reality.

Additionally, the barriers may be created and attached by depositing thelayer's material onto the target component. This may be achieved by, forexample, electroplating; chemical vapor deposition (CVD) specifically,by organometallic chemical vapor deposition (OMCVD); or physical vapordeposition (PVD) specifically, thermal evaporation, sputtering, pulsedlaser deposition (PLD), cathodic arc, and electrospark deposition (ESD).Each of these attachment techniques are known in the art.

In some embodiments the nuclear material need not be attached to thefuel-side barrier, but rather can just be contained within a containerformed, at least in part, by one or more of the cladding embodimentsdescribed above. For example, pelletized nuclear fuel may simply beloaded into a cladding in the form of a closed tube or a vessel of someother shape.

Alternatively, metallurgical bonds between one or more layers may becreated as part of the method 1600, for example by hot pressing (e.g.,hot isostatic pressing). For example, in an embodiment a three-layerintermediate component consisting of a tubular billet of HT9 or othersteel layer, a middle layer and a vanadium layer having a center voidmay be created by either mechanical attachment of separate tubes ofmaterial, deposition of materials onto the steel layer, or a combinationof both (e.g., deposition of the middle layer onto either a fabricatedsteel billet or vanadium billet and then assembly of the billets withthe middle between the steel and vanadium layers). The roughintermediate form of the cladding may then be hot pressed using constantpressure (hot isostatic pressing) to create a metallurgical bond betweenthe layers of the intermediate. The intermediate component may then beextruded or pilgered (or a combination of both), followed bycold-rolling or cold-drawing into final shape.

For example, a BEC may be manufactured in this way by assembling a tubeof cladding material, cladding-side barrier material and fuel-sidebarrier material and then hot pressing them, followed by an extrusionand cold-rolling or -drawing into the final form factor for the BEC. Inan alternative metallurgical bond embodiment, an intermediate componentmay be extruded or pilgered (or a combination of both) first and thenhot pressed to provide the metallurgical bond. The intermediate may thenbe processed into a final from factor or the form factor needed forsubsequent processing steps.

FIG. 17 illustrates an embodiment of the working operation 1608 of FIG.16. In this embodiment 1700, the two or three layers of a cladding areassembled and then metallurgically bonded in a metallurgical bondingoperation 1702. This may include hot isostatic pressing of a tubular orsheet billet of layers. Following the metallurgical bonding, the billetis then hot extruded in an extrusion operation 1704 and subsequentlycold-rolled or -drawn in a cold working operation 1706.

FIG. 18 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the working operation1608 of FIG. 16. In this embodiment 1800, the order of the metallurgicalbonding operation 1804 and extrusion operation 1802 are reversedrelative to the embodiment shown in FIG. 17, although the method 1800ends with a final cold-working operation 1806 the same as shown in FIG.17.

FIG. 19 illustrates yet another alternative embodiment of the workingoperation 1608 of FIG. 16. In this embodiment, the method 1900 startswith the metallurgical bonding operation 1902. After the bonding, theintermediate component is then pilgered at room temperature in apilgering operation 1904. The method 1900 ends with a final cold-workingoperation 1906 the same as shown in FIG. 17.

Notwithstanding the appended claims, the disclosure is also defined bythe following clauses:

1. A wall element consisting of:

a first layer of steel;

a second layer of at least 90% vanadium; and

a third layer of nickel, nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy,zirconium or zirconium alloy between the first layer and the secondlayer.

2. The wall element of clause 1, wherein the second layer has athickness that is from 0.1% to 50% of the thickness of the first layerand the third layer has a thickness that is from 0.1% to 50% of thethickness of the first layer.

3. The wall element of clause 1, wherein the second layer has athickness that is from 1% to 5% of the thickness of the first layer andthe third layer has a thickness that is from 1% to 5% of the thicknessof the first layer.

4. The wall element of clauses 1-3, wherein the second layer is selectedfrom the vanadium alloys V-20Ti, V-10Cr-5Ti, V-15Cr-5Ti, V-4Cr-4Ti,V-4Cr-4Ti NIFS Heats 1& 2, V-4Cr-4Ti US Heats 832665 & 8923864, andV-4Cr-4Ti Heat CEA-J57.

5. The wall element of clause 4, wherein the second layer is V-4Cr-4Ti.

6. The wall element of clause 4, wherein the second layer consists of:

3.0-5.0 wt. % Cr;

3.0-5.0 wt. % Ti; and

no more than 0.02 wt. % C;

with the balance being V and other elements, wherein the vanadium alloyincludes not greater than 0.1 wt. % of each of these other elements, andwherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %.

7. The wall element of clause 5, wherein the second layer consists of:

3.5-4.5 wt. % Cr;

3.5-4.5 wt. % Ti;

0.04-0.1 wt. % Si;

up to 0.02 wt. % O;

up to 0.02 wt. % N;

up to 0.02 wt. % C;

up to 0.02 wt. % Al;

up to 0.02 wt. % Fe;

up to 0.001 wt. % Cu;

up to 0.001 wt. % Mo;

up to 0.001 wt. % Nb;

up to 0.001 wt. % P;

up to 0.001 wt. % S; and

no more than 0.0002 wt. % Cl;

with the balance being V and other elements, wherein the vanadium alloyincludes not greater than 0.001 wt. % of each of these other elements,and wherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.01 wt.%.

8. The wall element of clauses 1-4, wherein the second layer consistsof: 0.001-0.5 wt. % C;

the balance being V and other elements, wherein the second layerincludes not greater than 0.1 wt. % of each of these other elements, andwherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %.

9. The wall element of clause 8, wherein the second layer includes from0.1 to 0.3 wt. % C in addition to V.

10. The wall element of any of clauses 1-9, wherein the steel of thefirst layer is selected from a tempered martensitic steel, a ferriticsteel, an austenitic steel, an oxide-dispersion strengthened steel, T91steel, T92 steel, HT9 steel, 316 steel, and 304 steel.

11. The wall element of any of clauses 1-10, wherein the steel of thefirst layer consists of:

9.0-12.0 wt. % Cr;

0.001-2.5 wt. % W;

0.001-2.0 wt. % Mo;

0.001-0.5 wt. % Si;

up to 0.5 wt. % Ti;

up to 0.5 wt. % Zr;

up to 0.5 wt. % V;

up to 0.5 wt. % Nb;

up to 0.3 wt. % Ta;

up to 0.1 wt. % N;

up to 0.3 wt. % C;

up to 0.01 wt. % B;

the balance being Fe and other elements, wherein the steel includes notgreater than 0.15 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.35 wt. %.

12. The wall element of any of clauses 1-11, wherein the steel includesone or more of carbide precipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Ta or B, nitrideprecipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta, and/or carbo-nitride precipitatesof Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta.

13. The wall element of any of clauses 5-7, wherein the vanadium alloyincludes one or more carbide precipitates of Cr, Ti and/or otherelements.

14. The wall element of any of clauses 1-13, wherein the first layer isat least 99% of the total thickness of the wall element and wherein witheach of the third layer and second layer being from 0.0001% to 0.5% ofthe thickness of the first layer.

15. The wall element of any of clauses 1-14, wherein the wall element isin the form of a tube with an interior surface and an exterior surface,the first layer forming the interior surface of the tube and the secondlayer forming the exterior surface of the tube.

16. The wall element of any of clauses 1-15, wherein the third layerconsists of: at least 99.9 wt. % Ni;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 0.05 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.1 wt. %.

17. The wall element of any of clauses 1-15, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 90.0 wt. % Ni;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 1.0 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 5.0 wt. %.

18. The wall element of any of clauses 1-15, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 99.9 wt. % Cr;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 0.05 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.1 wt. %.

19. The wall element of any of clauses 1-15, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 90.0 wt. % Cr;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 1.0 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 5.0 wt. %.

20. The wall element of any of clauses 1-15, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 99.9 wt. % Zr;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 0.05 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.1 wt. %.

21. The wall element of any of clauses 1-15, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 90.0 wt. % Zr;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 1.0 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 5.0 wt. %.

22. A container made, at least in part, from wall elements of any ofclauses 1-21.

23. A container for holding a nuclear fuel comprising:

at least one wall element separating a fuel storage volume from anexternal environment;

the wall element having a first layer of steel separated from a secondlayer of at least 90% vanadium by a third layer between the first layerand the second layer;

the first layer of the wall contacting the external environment and thesecond layer contacting and the fuel storage volume; and

wherein the third layer consists of nickel, nickel alloy, chromium,chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconium alloy.

24. The container of clause 23, wherein the container has a shape thatis defined by one or more continuously connected wall elements to form avessel.

25. The container of clause 23, wherein the container is shaped as acylindrical tube, at least one wall element forming a cylindrical wallof the tube and the fuel storage region being the inside of the tube.

26. The container of any of clauses 23-25, wherein the containerincludes a bottom wall and one or more sidewalls and at least one wallelement forms a bottom wall or sidewall of the container.

27. An article, comprising:

an amount of nuclear material;

a wall element disposed exterior to the nuclear fuel and separating atleast some of the nuclear material from an exterior environment, thewall element consisting of:

-   -   a first layer of steel in contact with the external environment;        and    -   a second layer of at least 90% vanadium in contact with the        nuclear material; and    -   a third layer between the first layer and the second layer, the        first layer of nickel inhibiting the transfer of carbon from the        steel into the vanadium alloy;

wherein the third layer consists of nickel, nickel alloy, chromium,chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconium alloy.

28. The article of clause 27, wherein the nuclear material includes atleast one of U, Th, Am, Np, and Pu.

29. The article of clause 27 or 28, wherein the nuclear materialincludes at least one refractory material chosen from Nb, Mo, Ta, W, Re,Zr, V, Ti, Cr, Ru, Rh, Os, Ir, Nd, and Hf.

30. The article of any of clauses 27-29, wherein the first layerincludes a steel, substantially all of which has at least one phasechosen from a tempered martensite phase, a ferrite phase, and anaustenitic phase.

31. The article of any of clauses 27-30, wherein the cladding layerincludes at least one steel chosen from a martensitic steel, a ferriticsteel, an austenitic steel, an oxide-dispersed steel, T91 steel, T92steel, HT9 steel, 346 steel, and 304 steel.

32. The article of any of clauses 27-31, wherein the nuclear fuel andthe wall element are mechanically bonded.

33. The article of any of clauses 27-32, wherein the exteriorenvironment includes molten sodium and the first layer of steel preventscontact between the sodium and the vanadium in the second layer.

34. The article of any of clauses 27-33, wherein the first layer and thesecond layer are mechanically bonded to opposite sides of the thirdlayer.

35. The article of any of clauses 27-34, wherein the nuclear materialincludes at least 90 wt. % of U.

36. The article of any of clauses 27-35, wherein the nuclear material isa nuclear fuel and the article is a nuclear fuel element.

37. The article of any of clauses 27-36, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 99.9 wt. % Ni;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 0.05 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.1 wt. %.

38. The article of any of clauses 27-36, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 90.0 wt. % Ni;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 5.0 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 10.0 wt. %.

39. The article of any of clauses 27-36, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 99.9 wt. % Cr;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 0.05 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.1 wt. %.

40. The article of any of clauses 27-36, wherein the third layerconsists of:

at least 90.0 wt. % Cr;

with the balance other elements, wherein the material includes notgreater than 5.0 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 10.0 wt. %.

41. The w article of any of clauses 27-36, wherein the second layerconsists of: 0.001-0.5 wt. % C;

the balance being V and other elements, wherein the second layerincludes not greater than 0.1 wt. % of each of these other elements, andwherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %.

42. A wall element consisting of:

a first layer of steel;

a second layer of vanadium doped with at least 0.001 wt. % carbon on thefirst layer of steel, the second layer having no more than 0.5 wt. % ofother elements besides V and C.

43. The wall element of clause 42 comprising:

a third layer between the first layer and the second layer, the thirdlayer being made of nickel, nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy,zirconium or zirconium alloy.

44. The wall element of clause 42 or 43, wherein the second layerconsists of:

0.001-0.5 wt. % C;

the balance being V and other elements, wherein the doped vanadium ofthe second layer includes not greater than 0.1 wt. % of each of theseother elements, and wherein the total of these other elements does notexceed 0.5 wt. %.

45. The wall element of any of clauses 42-44, wherein the doped vanadiumof the second layer includes from 0.1 to 0.3 wt. % C.

46. The wall element of any of clauses 42-45, wherein the steel of thefirst layer is selected from a tempered martensitic steel, a ferriticsteel, an austenitic steel, an oxide-dispersion strengthened steel, T91steel, T92 steel, HT9 steel, 316 steel, and 304 steel.

47. The wall element of any of clauses 42-46, wherein the steel of thefirst layer consists of:

9.0-12.0 wt. % Cr;

0.001-2.5 wt. % W;

0.001-2.0 wt. % Mo;

0.001-0.5 wt. % Si;

up to 0.5 wt. % Ti;

up to 0.5 wt. % Zr;

up to 0.5 wt. % V;

up to 0.5 wt. % Nb;

up to 0.3 wt. % Ta;

up to 0.1 wt. % N;

up to 0.3 wt. % C;

up to 0.01 wt. % B;

the balance being Fe and other elements, wherein the steel includes notgreater than 0.15 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.35 wt. %.

48. The wall element of any of clauses 42-47, wherein the steel includesone or more of carbide precipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Ta or B, nitrideprecipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta, and/or carbo-nitride precipitatesof Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta and/or wherein the vanadium alloy includes oneor more carbide precipitates of Cr, Ti and/or other elements.

49. The wall element of clause 42, wherein the second layer has athickness that is from 0.1% to 50% of the thickness of the first layer.

50. The wall element of any of clauses 42-49, wherein the second layerhas a thickness that is from 1% to 5% of the thickness of the firstlayer.

51. The wall element of any of clauses 42-50, wherein the wall elementis in the form of a tube with an interior surface and an exteriorsurface, the first layer forming the interior surface of the tube andthe second layer forming the exterior surface of the tube.

52. The wall element of clause 51 further comprising:

an amount of nuclear material within the tube.

53. The article of clause 52, wherein the nuclear material includes oneor more elements selected from U, Th, Am, Np, and Pu.

54. The article of clause 52 or 53, wherein the nuclear materialincludes at least one refractory material chosen from Nb, Mo, Ta, W, Re,Zr, V, Ti, Cr, Ru, Rh, Os, Ir, Nd, and Hf.

55. A container for holding a nuclear fuel comprising:

at least one wall element separating a fuel storage region from anexternal environment; the wall element having a first layer of steelattached to a second layer of vanadium doped with at least 0.001 wt. %carbon and having no more than 0.5 wt. % of other elements.

the first layer of the wall contacting the external environment and thesecond layer contacting the fuel storage region.

56. The container of clause 55, wherein the container has a shape thatis defined by one or more continuously connected wall elements to form avessel.

57. The container of clauses 55 or 56, wherein the container is shapedas a cylindrical tube, at least one wall element forming a cylindricalwall of the tube and the fuel storage region being the inside of thetube.

58. The container of any of clauses 55-57, wherein the containerincludes a bottom wall and one or more sidewalls and at least one wallelement forms a bottom wall of the container.

59. The container of any of clauses 55-58, wherein the containerincludes a bottom wall and one or more sidewalls and at least one wallelement forms at least one of the one or more sidewalls of thecontainer.

60. A wall element consisting of:

a first layer of steel;

a second layer of vanadium alloy on the first layer of steel, whereinthe first layer of steel is from 0.1% to 50% of the thickness of thesecond layer.

61. The wall element of clause 60 comprising:

a third layer between the first layer and the second layer, the thirdlayer being made of nickel, nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy,zirconium or zirconium alloy.

62. The wall element of clauses 60 or 61, wherein the second layer isselected from the vanadium alloys V-20Ti, V-10Cr-5Ti, V-15Cr-5Ti,V-4Cr-4Ti, V-4Cr-4Ti NIFS Heats 1& 2, V-4Cr-4Ti US Heats 832665 &8923864, and V-4Cr-4Ti Heat CEA-J57.

63. The wall element of clause 62, wherein the second layer consists of:

3.0-5.0 wt. % Cr;

3.0-5.0 wt. % Ti; and

no more than 0.02 wt. % C;

with the balance being V and other elements, wherein the vanadium alloyincludes not greater than 0.1 wt. % of each of these other elements, andwherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %.

64. The wall element of clause 62, wherein the second layer consists of:

3.5-4.5 wt. % Cr;

3.5-4.5 wt. % Ti;

0.04-0.1 wt. % Si;

up to 0.02 wt. % O;

up to 0.02 wt. % N;

up to 0.02 wt. % C;

up to 0.02 wt. % Al;

up to 0.02 wt. % Fe;

up to 0.001 wt. % Cu;

up to 0.001 wt. % Mo;

up to 0.001 wt. % Nb;

up to 0.001 wt. % P;

up to 0.001 wt. % S; and

no more than 0.0002 wt. % Cl;

with the balance being V and other elements, wherein the vanadium alloyincludes not greater than 0.001 wt. % of each of these other elements,and wherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.01 wt.%.

65. The wall element of any of clauses 60-64, wherein the steel of thefirst layer is selected from a tempered martensitic steel, a ferriticsteel, an austenitic steel, an oxide-dispersion strengthened steel, T91steel, T92 steel, HT9 steel, 316 steel, and 304 steel.

66. The wall element of clauses 60-64, wherein the steel of the firstlayer consists of:

9.0-12.0 wt. % Cr;

0.001-2.5 wt. % W;

0.001-2.0 wt. % Mo;

0.001-0.5 wt. % Si;

up to 0.5 wt. % Ti;

up to 0.5 wt. % Zr;

up to 0.5 wt. % V;

up to 0.5 wt. % Nb;

up to 0.3 wt. % Ta;

up to 0.1 wt. % N;

up to 0.3 wt. % C;

up to 0.01 wt. % B;

the balance being Fe and other elements, wherein the steel includes notgreater than 0.15 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.35 wt. %.

67. The wall element of any of clauses 60-66, wherein the steel includesone or more of carbide precipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Ta or B, nitrideprecipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta, and/or carbo-nitride precipitatesof Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta and/or wherein the vanadium alloy includes oneor more carbide precipitates of Cr, Ti and/or other elements.

68. The wall element of any preceding clause, wherein the first layerhas a thickness that is from 1% to 5% of the thickness of the secondlayer.

69. The wall element of any preceding clause, wherein the wall elementis in the form of a tube with an interior surface and an exteriorsurface, the first layer forming the interior surface of the tube andthe second layer forming the exterior surface of the tube.

70. A container for holding a nuclear fuel comprising:

at least one wall element separating a fuel storage region from anexternal environment;

the wall element having a first layer of steel attached to a secondlayer of vanadium alloy, wherein the first layer of steel is from 0.1%to 50% of the thickness of the second layer;

the first layer of the wall contacting the external environment and thesecond layer contacting the fuel storage region.

71. The container of clause 70, wherein the container has a shape thatis defined by one or more continuously connected wall elements to form avessel.

72. The container of clause 70 or 71, wherein the container is shaped asa cylindrical tube, at least one wall element forming a cylindrical wallof the tube and the fuel storage region being the inside of the tube.

73. The container of any of clauses 70-72, wherein the containerincludes a bottom wall and one or more sidewalls and at least one wallelement forms a bottom wall of the container.

74. The container of any of clauses 70-73, wherein the containerincludes a bottom wall and one or more sidewalls and at least one wallelement forms at least one of the one or more sidewalls of thecontainer.

75. An article, comprising:

an amount of nuclear material;

a wall element disposed exterior to the nuclear fuel and separating atleast some of the nuclear material from an exterior environment, thewall element consisting of:

-   -   a first layer of steel; and    -   a second layer of vanadium alloy between the first layer and the        nuclear material, wherein the first layer of steel is from 0.1%        to 50% of the thickness of the second layer and the first layer        of steel separates the second layer from the exterior        environment.

76. The article of clause 75, wherein the nuclear material includes atleast one of U, Th, Am, Np, and Pu.

77. The article of clauses 75 or 76, wherein the first layer includes atleast one steel chosen from a martensitic steel, a ferritic steel, anaustenitic steel, an oxide-dispersed steel, T91 steel, T92 steel, HT9steel, 316 steel, and 304 steel.

78. The article of any of clauses 75-77, wherein the nuclear fuel andthe wall element are mechanically bonded.

79. The article of any of clauses 75-78, wherein the exteriorenvironment includes molten sodium and the first layer of steel preventscontact between the sodium and the vanadium alloy in the second layer.

80. The article of any of clauses 75-79, wherein the first layer and thesecond layer are mechanically bonded.

81. The article of any of clauses 75-80, wherein the nuclear materialincludes at least 90 wt. % of U.

82. The article of any of clauses 75-81, wherein the nuclear material isnuclear fuel and the article is a nuclear fuel element.

83. A power-generating reactor including the article of any of clauses27-41 and 75-82.

84. A method of manufacturing a wall element for separating a nuclearmaterial from an external environment, the method comprising:

manufacturing a first layer, the first layer including at least a steellayer; and

connecting the first layer to a second layer, the second layer includingat least a vanadium alloy layer.

85. The method of clause 84 further comprising:

manufacturing the second layer prior to connecting the second layer tothe first layer.

86. The method of clauses 84 or 85, wherein connecting furthercomprises:

connecting the steel layer to the vanadium alloy layer.

87. The method of any of clauses 84-86, wherein manufacturing the firstlayer includes manufacturing a first layer consisting of the steel layerconnected to a chromium layer and connecting includes connecting thefirst layer to the second layer so that the chromium layer is betweenthe steel layer and the vanadium alloy layer.

88. The method of any of clauses 84-87, wherein the second layerconsists of the vanadium alloy layer connected to the chromium layer andconnecting includes the first layer to the second layer so that thechromium layer is between the steel layer and the vanadium alloy layer.

89. A steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing methodcomprising:

fabricating a steel tube;

fabricating a vanadium tube of carbon-doped vanadium or vanadium alloy;

depositing one of nickel, nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy,zirconium or zirconium alloy one either the inside of the steel tube orthe outside of the vanadium tube;

inserting the vanadium tube into the steel tube thereby creating asteel-middle layer-vanadium intermediate tube;

metallurgical bonding the steel-middle layer-vanadium intermediate tube;

pilgering or extruding the steel-middle layer-vanadium intermediatetube; and

cold working the steel-middle layer-vanadium intermediate tube after themetallurgical bonding and pilgering or extruding operations to obtain asteel-middle layer-vanadium cladding.

90. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 89, wherein the steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding consists of:

an outer layer of steel;

a inner layer of at least 90% vanadium; and

a middle layer of nickel, nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy,zirconium or zirconium alloy between the outer layer and the innerlayer.

91. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 89, wherein the metallurgical bonding operation includes hotisostatic pressing of the steel-middle layer-vanadium intermediate tube.

92. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 89, wherein the metallurgical bonding operation is performedafter the pilgering or extruding operation.

93. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 89, wherein the metallurgical bonding operation is performedbefore the pilgering or extruding operation.

94. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 89, wherein the depositing operation includes depositing thenickel, nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconiumalloy by organometallic chemical vapor deposition (OMCVD); thermalevaporation, sputtering, pulsed laser deposition (PLD), cathodic arc, orelectrospark deposition (ESD).

95. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 90, wherein the inner layer has a thickness that is from 0.1% to50% of the thickness of the steel layer and the middle layer has athickness that is from 0.1% to 50% of the thickness of the first layer.

96. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 90, wherein the inner layer has a thickness that is from 1% to 5%of the thickness of the steel layer and the middle layer has a thicknessthat is from 1% to 5% of the thickness of the first layer.

97. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclauses 90-96, wherein the inner layer is selected from the vanadiumalloys V-20Ti, V-10Cr-5Ti, V-15Cr-5Ti, V-4Cr-4Ti, V-4Cr-4Ti NIFS Heats 1& 2, V-4Cr-4Ti US Heats 832665 & 8923864, and V-4Cr-4Ti Heat CEA-J57.

98. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 90, wherein the inner layer consists of:

3.0-5.0 wt. % Cr;

3.0-5.0 wt. % Ti; and

no more than 0.02 wt. % C;

with the balance being V and other elements, wherein the vanadium alloyincludes not greater than 0.1 wt. % of each of these other elements, andwherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %.

99. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 97, wherein the inner layer consists of:

3.5-4.5 wt. % Cr;

3.5-4.5 wt. % Ti;

0.04-0.1 wt. % Si;

up to 0.02 wt. % O;

up to 0.02 wt. % N;

up to 0.02 wt. % C;

up to 0.02 wt. % Al;

up to 0.02 wt. % Fe;

up to 0.001 wt. % Cu;

up to 0.001 wt. % Mo;

up to 0.001 wt. % Nb;

up to 0.001 wt. % P;

up to 0.001 wt. % S; and

no more than 0.0002 wt. % Cl;

with the balance being V and other elements, wherein the vanadium alloyincludes not greater than 0.001 wt. % of each of these other elements,and wherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.01 wt.%. 100. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofany of clauses 90-96, wherein the inner layer consists of:

0.001-0.5 wt. % C;

the balance being V and other elements, wherein the second layerincludes not greater than 0.1 wt. % of each of these other elements, andwherein the total of these other elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %.

101. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclause 96, wherein the inner layer includes from 0.1 to 0.3 wt. % C inaddition to V.

102. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofany of clauses 89-101, wherein the steel of the steel layer is selectedfrom a tempered martensitic steel, a ferritic steel, an austeniticsteel, an oxide-dispersion strengthened steel, T91 steel, T92 steel, HT9steel, 316 steel, and 304 steel.

103. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofany of clauses 89-101, wherein the steel of the first layer consists of:

9.0-12.0 wt. % Cr;

0.001-2.5 wt. % W;

0.001-2.0 wt. % Mo;

0.001-0.5 wt. % Si;

up to 0.5 wt. % Ti;

up to 0.5 wt. % Zr;

up to 0.5 wt. % V;

up to 0.5 wt. % Nb;

up to 0.3 wt. % Ta;

up to 0.1 wt. % N;

up to 0.3 wt. % C;

up to 0.01 wt. % B;

the balance being Fe and other elements, wherein the steel includes notgreater than 0.15 wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein thetotal of these other elements does not exceed 0.35 wt. %.

104. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofany of clauses 89-99, wherein the steel includes one or more of carbideprecipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Ta or B, nitride precipitates of Ti, Zr,V, Nb, or Ta, and/or carbo-nitride precipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta.

105. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofany of clauses 97-99, wherein the vanadium alloy includes one or morecarbide precipitates of Cr, Ti and/or other elements.

106. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofany of clauses 89-94 and 97-105, wherein the steel layer is at least 99%of the total thickness of the steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding andwherein with each of the middle layer and inner layer being from 0.0001%to 0.5% of the thickness of the steel layer.

Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forththe broad scope of the technology are approximations, the numericalvalues set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely aspossible. Any numerical values, however, inherently contain certainerrors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in theirrespective testing measurements.

It will be clear that the systems and methods described herein are welladapted to attain the ends and advantages mentioned as well as thoseinherent therein. Those skilled in the art will recognize that themethods and systems within this specification may be implemented in manymanners and as such are not to be limited by the foregoing exemplifiedembodiments and examples. In this regard, any number of the features ofthe different embodiments described herein may be combined into onesingle embodiment and alternate embodiments having fewer than or morethan all of the features herein described are possible.

While various embodiments have been described for purposes of thisdisclosure, various changes and modifications may be made which are wellwithin the scope contemplated by the present disclosure. Numerous otherchanges may be made which will readily suggest themselves to thoseskilled in the art and which are encompassed in the spirit of thedisclosure.

1. A steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing methodcomprising: fabricating a steel tube; fabricating a vanadium tube ofcarbon-doped vanadium or vanadium alloy; depositing one of nickel,nickel alloy, chromium, chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconium alloy oneeither the inside of the steel tube or the outside of the vanadium tube;inserting the vanadium tube into the steel tube thereby creating asteel-middle layer-vanadium intermediate tube; metallurgical bonding thesteel-middle layer-vanadium intermediate tube; pilgering or extrudingthe steel-middle layer-vanadium intermediate tube; and cold working thesteel-middle layer-vanadium intermediate tube after the metallurgicalbonding and pilgering or extruding operations to obtain a steel-middlelayer-vanadium cladding.
 2. The steel-middle layer-vanadium claddingmanufacturing method of claim 1, wherein the steel-middle layer-vanadiumcladding consists of: an outer layer of steel; an inner layer of atleast 90% vanadium; and a middle layer of nickel, nickel alloy,chromium, chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconium alloy between the outerlayer and the inner layer.
 3. The steel-middle layer-vanadium claddingmanufacturing method of claim 1, wherein the metallurgical bondingoperation includes hot isostatic pressing of the steel-middlelayer-vanadium intermediate tube.
 4. The steel-middle layer-vanadiumcladding manufacturing method of claim 1, wherein the metallurgicalbonding operation is performed after the pilgering or extrudingoperation.
 5. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturingmethod of claim 1, wherein the metallurgical bonding operation isperformed before the pilgering or extruding operation.
 6. Thesteel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method of claim 1,wherein the depositing operation includes depositing the nickel, nickelalloy, chromium, chromium alloy, zirconium or zirconium alloy byorganometallic chemical vapor deposition (OMCVD); thermal evaporation,sputtering, pulsed laser deposition (PLD), cathodic arc, or electrosparkdeposition (ESD).
 7. The steel-middle layer-vanadium claddingmanufacturing method of claim 2, wherein the inner layer has a thicknessthat is from 0.1% to 50% of the thickness of the steel layer and themiddle layer has a thickness that is from 0.1% to 50% of the thicknessof the first layer.
 8. The steel-middle layer-vanadium claddingmanufacturing method of claim 2, wherein the inner layer has a thicknessthat is from 1% to 5% of the thickness of the steel layer and the middlelayer has a thickness that is from 1% to 5% of the thickness of thefirst layer.
 9. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturingmethod of claim 2, wherein the inner layer is selected from the vanadiumalloys V-20Ti, V-10Cr-5Ti, V-15Cr-5Ti, V-4Cr-4Ti, V-4Cr-4Ti NIFS Heats 1& 2, V-4Cr-4Ti US Heats 832665 & 8923864, and V-4Cr-4Ti Heat CEA-J57.10. The steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method ofclaim 2, wherein the inner layer consists of: 3.0-5.0 wt. % Cr; 3.0-5.0wt. % Ti; and no more than 0.02 wt. % C; with the balance being V andother elements, wherein the vanadium alloy includes not greater than 0.1wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein the total of theseother elements does not exceed 0.5 wt. %.
 11. The steel-middlelayer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method of claim 2, wherein theinner layer consists of: 3.5-4.5 wt. % Cr; 3.5-4.5 wt. % Ti; 0.04-0.1wt. % Si; up to 0.02 wt. % O; up to 0.02 wt. % N; up to 0.02 wt. % C; upto 0.02 wt. % Al; up to 0.02 wt. % Fe; up to 0.001 wt. % Cu; up to 0.001wt. % Mo; up to 0.001 wt. % Nb; up to 0.001 wt. % P; up to 0.001 wt. %S; and no more than 0.0002 wt. % Cl; with the balance being V and otherelements, wherein the vanadium alloy includes not greater than 0.001 wt.% of each of these other elements, and wherein the total of these otherelements does not exceed 0.01 wt. %.
 12. The steel-middle layer-vanadiumcladding manufacturing method of claim 2, wherein the inner layerconsists of: 0.001-0.5 wt. % C; the balance being V and other elements,wherein the second layer includes not greater than 0.1 wt. % of each ofthese other elements, and wherein the total of these other elements doesnot exceed 0.5 wt. %.
 13. The steel-middle layer-vanadium claddingmanufacturing method of claim 2, wherein the inner layer includes from0.1 to 0.3 wt. % C in addition to V.
 14. The steel-middle layer-vanadiumcladding manufacturing method of claim 2, wherein the steel of the steellayer is selected from a tempered martensitic steel, a ferritic steel,an austenitic steel, an oxide-dispersion strengthened steel, T91 steel,T92 steel, HT9 steel, 316 steel, and 304 steel.
 15. The steel-middlelayer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method of claim 2, wherein thesteel of the steel layer consists of: 9.0-12.0 wt. % Cr; 0.001-2.5 wt. %W; 0.001-2.0 wt. % Mo; 0.001-0.5 wt. % Si; up to 0.5 wt. % Ti; up to 0.5wt. % Zr; up to 0.5 wt. % V; up to 0.5 wt. % Nb; up to 0.3 wt. % Ta; upto 0.1 wt. % N; up to 0.3 wt. % C; up to 0.01 wt. % B; the balance beingFe and other elements, wherein the steel includes not greater than 0.15wt. % of each of these other elements, and wherein the total of theseother elements does not exceed 0.35 wt. %.
 16. The steel-middlelayer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method of claim 2, wherein thesteel includes one or more of carbide precipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Taor B, nitride precipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta, and/or carbo-nitrideprecipitates of Ti, Zr, V, Nb, or Ta.
 17. The steel-middlelayer-vanadium cladding manufacturing method of claim 2, wherein theinner layer includes one or more carbide precipitates of Cr, Ti and/orother elements.
 18. The steel-middle layer-vanadium claddingmanufacturing method of claim 2, wherein the steel layer is at least 99%of the total thickness of the steel-middle layer-vanadium cladding andwherein with each of the middle layer and inner layer being from 0.0001%to 0.5% of the thickness of the steel layer.